Manifest Destiny: How and Why Did America Expand Westward?
Introduction
Manifest Destiny represents a foundational philosophy that greatly influenced the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. Coined in 1845 by journalist John L. O’Sullivan, the term embodies the belief that Americans were divinely destined to expand across the North American continent, spreading their unique virtues of democracy and civilization. This paper aims to explore the various factors, events, and figures that played pivotal roles in America’s westward expansion, driven by the ideology of Manifest Destiny.
Philosophical Origins of Manifest Destiny
The concept of Manifest Destiny has deep roots in the American psyche, intertwined with the nation’s identity and vision for the future. Before O’Sullivan officially coined the term, the principles encapsulating Manifest Destiny were already influencing American policies and expansionist visions. The idea emanated from the Puritan belief in a “city upon a hill,” symbolizing a society that others would emulate.
American exceptionalism, another philosophical pillar supporting Manifest Destiny, propagated the belief that the United States was inherently different and superior to other nations due to its democratic institutions and moral character. The destiny, therefore, was not only manifest but also inevitable, and Americans saw themselves as chosen to lead and enlighten the rest of the world. This combination of religious fervor, moral duty, and a sense of exceptionalism provided a powerful justification for the expansionist endeavors that would follow.
Moreover, the practical application of Manifest Destiny was deeply intertwined with contemporary social and political theories, most notably the belief in the inevitable progress of civilization and the importance of American institutions in fostering this progress. These ideas, in conjunction, fueled the American populace’s support and enthusiasm for westward expansion, shaping the nation’s history in the process.
Sociopolitical Climate
The sociopolitical climate during the era of Manifest Destiny significantly influenced the United States’ westward expansion. With a nation fervently believing in its exceptionalism and destiny, political leaders were often elected based on their support or opposition to expansionist policies. The prevailing mood favored expansion, seen as a way to spread American democracy and values, while simultaneously providing new opportunities and wealth for its citizens.
Notable political figures, including Presidents James K. Polk and Andrew Jackson, were staunch supporters of westward expansion. Polk, for example, was committed to extending the nation’s borders to the Pacific Ocean, a vision encapsulated in his 1844 presidential campaign slogan “Fifty-four Forty or Fight!” His presidency saw the annexation of Texas, the settlement of the Oregon territory boundary dispute with Great Britain, and the successful prosecution of the Mexican-American War, which resulted in the acquisition of California and the American Southwest.
The desire for new territories was not solely based on ideological grounds; practical considerations, such as the need for more land for a growing population and the pursuit of economic opportunities, were also driving forces. These economic and political motivations often intersected with the deeply ingrained belief in Manifest Destiny, creating a potent mixture that propelled the nation’s expansionist agenda forward.
Economic Factors
Economic motives significantly drove the United States’ westward expansion, with visions of vast wealth and endless opportunities enticing both individuals and the nation as a whole. Manifest Destiny unfolded during an era of pronounced economic transformation, marked by the emergence of capitalism and the initial phases of the Industrial Revolution in America.
One of the major economic drivers was the California Gold Rush, commencing in 1848. The Gold Rush lured thousands of individuals, known as ’49ers, seeking fortune in the gold fields of California. This massive movement of people not only led to the rapid settlement and development of California but also stimulated economic activity, facilitating the financial viability of westward expansion. The promise of gold and the success stories emanating from the West served as powerful magnets, attracting a diverse array of people from various walks of life.
The fur trade also played a pivotal role in promoting westward movement. Before the Gold Rush, the lucrative fur trade drew explorers and trappers to venture into the uncharted territories of the American West. Trading posts and forts established for the fur trade often served as the nuclei for future towns and cities, laying the groundwork for subsequent settlement and development in these regions.
Besides, the growing population in the Eastern states generated a demand for more living space, leading many to look towards the seemingly infinite lands lying to the West. The availability of fertile land ideal for agriculture, especially in the Midwest, offered opportunities for families to establish farms and build lives in new territories. This agricultural promise, coupled with the prospect of wealth through gold and fur, collectively fueled America’s westward expansion during the 19th century.
Technological Advances
Technological innovations played a critical role in facilitating and accelerating the westward expansion of the United States. These advances not only made travel and communication more efficient but also opened up new possibilities for economic development in the Western territories.
The steam engine was among the transformative technologies of this era. Steamboats revolutionized transportation along America’s extensive river systems, making it faster and more economical to move people and goods. The steamboat era witnessed a dramatic increase in trade and the ability to transport agricultural products from the Midwest to markets in the East, effectively binding the expanding nation together economically and culturally.
The completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 marked another technological milestone that significantly influenced westward expansion. This massive infrastructure project connected the Eastern and Western coasts of the United States, reducing travel time from months to weeks. The railroad not only facilitated the movement of settlers but also opened up new markets for goods, promoting economic development in regions previously isolated due to their geographic remoteness.
Technological advances in communication, like the telegraph, also played an integral role. Introduced in the 1840s, the telegraph enabled instant communication across vast distances, allowing for more efficient coordination and management of the burgeoning nation’s affairs. This newfound ability to transmit information rapidly was indispensable in governing the expanding territories and fostering a sense of national unity amidst the geographical sprawl of the United States.
Impact on Indigenous Peoples
The westward expansion under the banner of Manifest Destiny had a profound and often devastating impact on the indigenous peoples of North America. As settlers moved westward, Native American communities were frequently displaced from their ancestral lands, leading to loss of culture, livelihoods, and lives.
One significant policy that exemplifies this impact is the Indian Removal Act of 1830, enacted during the presidency of Andrew Jackson. This legislation led to the forcible relocation of various indigenous tribes from the southeastern United States, resulting in the infamous Trail of Tears where thousands of Native Americans died due to exposure, disease, and starvation during their journey to designated Indian Territories in present-day Oklahoma.
Moreover, as settlers encroached upon Native American territories, conflicts inevitably ensued. Many of these confrontations were violent, resulting in loss of life on both sides. However, indigenous peoples bore the brunt of these clashes, often facing well-armed and organized military units. In the process, numerous tribes experienced significant population declines, loss of cultural heritage, and disruption to their traditional ways of life.
The impact of westward expansion also manifested in the establishment of reservations, which were generally located on marginal lands unsuitable for agriculture or development. These reservations served to isolate Native Americans from the broader society, contributing to long-term social and economic challenges that continue to affect indigenous communities to this day.
Key Events and Figures
The era of Manifest Destiny was characterized by various pivotal events and figures who played instrumental roles in the westward expansion of the United States. Among these events, the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 stands out as a landmark, effectively doubling the size of the country overnight and providing vast territories for settlement. The exploratory expedition of Lewis and Clark (1804-1806), commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson, provided valuable information on these newly acquired lands, paving the way for future settlers.
The aforementioned Indian Removal Act and the subsequent Trail of Tears were also crucial, albeit tragic, elements of this historical period. These events exemplify the complex and often conflicting dynamics of expansion, highlighting the tensions between the pursuit of national destiny and the rights and well-being of indigenous populations.
James K. Polk, the 11th president of the United States, was a leading figure during this era, staunchly advocating for expansion. Under his leadership, the nation witnessed the annexation of Texas, the settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute, and the acquisition of territories from Mexico following the Mexican-American War, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming.
Other notable figures include explorers, military leaders, and settlers who contributed to the exploration, conquest, and development of the Western territories. These individuals, through their endeavors and experiences, collectively shaped the unfolding of Manifest Destiny and the westward expansion of the United States.
Challenges and Criticisms
The westward expansion and Manifest Destiny ideology were not without their challenges and criticisms. One prominent challenge was the logistic and humanitarian issues involved in settling the newly acquired lands. Settlers had to navigate through harsh terrains, face diseases, and establish new communities from scratch, all of which posed significant hardships.
Furthermore, the expansionist philosophy faced moral and ethical criticisms, primarily for its impact on the indigenous populations. Many individuals and groups within the United States opposed the dispossession and displacement of Native Americans, viewing these policies as unjust and inhumane. Critics also argued that Manifest Destiny was used as a justification for imperialistic conquest, undermining the democratic and moral values it purported to spread.
Additionally, the acquisition of new territories reignited tensions between Northern and Southern states over the issue of slavery. Debates over whether new states would be admitted as free or slave-holding exacerbated existing sectional conflicts, eventually contributing to the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861.
Long-term Consequences
Manifest Destiny and the westward expansion had long-lasting implications for the United States and its diverse populations. The acquisition and settlement of Western territories led to the establishment of new states, significantly altering the nation’s political, cultural, and economic landscape. The expansion facilitated the growth of a market economy, fostering trade and economic development across regions.
For indigenous peoples, the consequences were severe and enduring. Displacement, cultural loss, and economic marginalization had a lasting impact on Native American communities, effects that are still felt today. The expansion also set a precedent for American foreign policy, establishing a pattern of intervention and territorial acquisition that continued in later years.
The demographic makeup of the United States was also transformed, with waves of immigrants and settlers contributing to a diverse and dynamic population. The cultural and social fabric of the nation evolved as different groups interacted, clashed, and eventually integrated, forging the unique and multifaceted identity of the American people.
Conclusion
Manifest Destiny was a powerful ideology that significantly shaped the course of American history. Its influences can be observed in the political, economic, and social developments of the 19th century, driving the nation’s expansion and altering its demographic and cultural composition. While the philosophy encapsulated the spirit of the age, embodying the hopes and ambitions of a young nation, it also brought forth a legacy of conflict, displacement, and ethical dilemmas.
The exploration of Manifest Destiny’s origins, key players, and impacts provides invaluable insights into the complexities and contradictions of American history. Through understanding this multifaceted narrative, one can better comprehend the United States’ historical trajectory and reflect on the lessons that this pivotal era offers for contemporary society.
Outline: How and why did America expand westward?
The quotes below signify the different opinions of those who favored westward expansion and those that did not:
“It is America’s right to stretch from sea to shining sea. Not only do we have a responsibility to our citizens to gain valuable natural resources we also have a responsibility to civilize this beautiful land.“
or
“America has no right to take the lands west of the Louisiana Territory. Those lands are rightfully owned by Mexico and to enter into conflict with the Mexicans just to expand and take that land would violate the principles of this great nation.“
As America hurtled towards self destruction we embarked on a period of expansion fueled by the notion that we could take the land west of our current boundaries merely because we wanted too. Just as distorted as this myopic view of the world was the fact that we were oblivious to the problems this expansion would create on an already fractious society.
I. Manifest Destiny
A. How did America expand its borders in the 1800’s?
1. Louisiana – Purchased in 1803 by President Thomas Jefferson for 15 million dollars.
2. Florida – Ceded (given) to the United States as a part of the Adams – Onis Treaty in 1819. A US army led by Andrew Jackson had been perched on the border of Florida. Realizing they would be unable to keep the territory (nor did they want it because of the harsh climate) the Spaniards gave it up.
3. Texas – American settlers had come to Texas and built plantations and farms. The settlers, led by Stephan Austin, asked Mexico for admission into the Mexican nation as an independent state. The Mexicans refused and war broke out highlighted by Santa Anna’s attack on the Alamo. Texas declared herself independent in 1836 and its first President was Sam Houston. In 1845 Texas was annexed by the United States and became the 28th state.
4. Oregon – Questions over the Oregon territories had long existed. Russia, France, Britin and the United States all had claims in the area. Russia and France gave upo their claims and then England negotiated a treaty with the United States to draw the boundary at 49 north latitude, where it remains today.
5. Mexican Cession – Tensions between America had her southern neighbor had been high for some time and had only increased as a result of America’s annexation of Texas. President Polk, with his eye on luring Texas into war, sent US troops over the border across the Rio Grande river, a disputed border. When Mexico attacked the US Polk responded by claiming that the Mexicans had perpetrated an unprovoked attack. Congress declared war and the US demolished the weaker Mexican army. As a result of the treaty that ended the war the US gained the Mexican Cession and paid Mexico 15 million dollars for their loss.
6. Gadsden Purchase – The US realizing the importance of this territory for railroad building paid Mexico 10 million dollars. Considering the price paid for Louisiana and the Cession lands this was a large amount. We paid this much due to a feeling of guilt over our participation in the Mexican American War.
B. How did the US justify this territorial expansion?
Photo of the bodies of Native Americans being carted away in the name of Manifest Destiny.
C. What problems were caused by westward expansion?
Frequently Asked Questions About Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny is a term coined in the 19th century to describe the widely held belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent. This ideology held that it was not only the fate but also the duty of the United States to spread its institutions, culture, and governance from the Atlantic to the Pacific, essentially covering the entire North American continent. Rooted in a sense of cultural and racial superiority, the doctrine of Manifest Destiny justified the displacement and subjugation of Native American populations and the annexation of territories.
This term was first used by journalist John L. O’Sullivan in 1845 to advocate for the annexation of Texas and Oregon territories. He argued that it was the nation’s “manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us.” This idea played a crucial role in promoting westward expansion and had significant implications for domestic and foreign policy during that period.
John L. O’Sullivan, a newspaper editor and influential columnist, coined the term “Manifest Destiny” in 1845. He first used the phrase in an article published in the Democratic Review while advocating for the annexation of Texas. O’Sullivan wrote that it was America’s “manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.” Later that year, he employed the term again in a column urging the United States to annex the Oregon Territory.
O’Sullivan’s writings encapsulated the mood of the nation during that era, as many Americans believed in their divine right and duty to expand westward. His phrase “Manifest Destiny” quickly gained popularity and became synonymous with the expansionist spirit that characterized American policy and public sentiment in the 19th century.
Manifest Destiny had a devastating and irrevocable impact on indigenous peoples residing in North America. As settlers moved westward, driven by the belief in their divine right to the land, Native American tribes were often forcibly removed from their ancestral territories. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 epitomized this policy, leading to the displacement of the Cherokee Nation along the Trail of Tears, among other similar forced relocations.
Native American tribes lost their homes, livelihoods, and cultural heritage due to the westward expansion. They were often confined to reservations on marginal lands, experiencing poverty, cultural disintegration, and social challenges as a result. Manifest Destiny’s philosophy and the subsequent policies enacted under its banner led to the marginalization and suffering of indigenous populations, the effects of which continue to be felt today.
While Manifest Destiny was a popular and influential ideology during the 19th century, it was not universally accepted among the American public. There were individuals and groups who opposed it for various reasons. Some, like Henry Clay and other Whigs, doubted the practicability and benefits of expansive territorial growth. Others were morally opposed to the aggressive displacement of Native American tribes and the annexation of foreign territories.
The expansionist vision also exacerbated existing tensions between Northern and Southern states over slavery, as each newly acquired territory raised the contentious issue of whether it would allow slavery or not. This deepened the sectional divide within the country, eventually culminating in the American Civil War. Manifest Destiny, therefore, while widely embraced, also had its critics and detractors who foresaw the potential problems and conflicts it would engender.
Manifest Destiny fueled the acquisition of vast territories, which in turn intensified the longstanding tensions between the Northern and Southern states over slavery. Every new territory acquired raised the crucial question of whether it would enter the Union as a free or slave state. The contentious issue of slavery’s expansion into the newly acquired western territories became a flashpoint, as it threatened the delicate balance between slave and free states.
For instance, the annexation of Texas, a slaveholding territory, in 1845, and the subsequent Mexican-American War, which resulted in the acquisition of present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and other Southwestern territories, exacerbated these tensions. The Compromise of 1850, designed to ease these tensions, provided only a temporary respite, as it left the issue of slavery in the territories unsettled and subject to ongoing debate and conflict. The ideological divide widened over the years, culminating in the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861.
Technology played a pivotal role in realizing the vision of Manifest Destiny by facilitating the exploration, communication, and transportation necessary for westward expansion. Innovations like the steam engine made it possible for steamboats to navigate upstream, opening up the country’s vast river systems to trade and transport. Steam-powered trains further revolutionized overland transportation, connecting distant territories with the Eastern states and fostering the movement of goods and people.
The completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 was a monumental achievement, linking the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and significantly reducing travel time. Moreover, the invention and deployment of the telegraph provided instantaneous communication over vast distances, crucial for coordination and governance in the expanding nation. Together, these technological advancements supported and accelerated the process of westward expansion, making the vision of Manifest Destiny achievable and sustainable.
Manifest Destiny directly influenced the U.S. economy by driving westward expansion, which opened up new territories rich in natural resources and economic opportunities. The Gold Rush of 1848 in California attracted a massive influx of settlers seeking fortune, stimulating economic activity and development in the region. The acquisition of new lands also provided room for agricultural expansion, with the Midwest becoming the nation’s breadbasket due to its fertile soil.
Furthermore, the expansion facilitated the growth of trade networks, both within the United States and with other countries. New cities and towns that emerged as economic hubs attracted businesses and labor, fostering a dynamic and growing economy. In essence, the ideology of Manifest Destiny and the resultant territorial expansion played a crucial role in shaping the economic landscape and development trajectory of the United States during the 19th century.
The international community closely observed the United States’ aggressive expansion under Manifest Destiny, eliciting various reactions. European powers, particularly Great Britain and Spain, were directly affected as they held territorial interests in North America. The doctrine often led to tense diplomatic relations, territorial disputes, and negotiations with these powers.
For instance, the Oregon Trail and the subsequent settlement of the Oregon Country led to a boundary dispute between the United States and British Canada, ultimately resolved through diplomacy. The annexation of Texas and the Mexican-American War resulted in the acquisition of a vast swath of Mexican territory, affecting U.S.-Mexican relations for years to come.
Overall, the international response mixed fascination with American growth and disapproval of the expansionist approach often deemed imperialistic. Manifest Destiny influenced not only domestic policy but also the way the United States was perceived and engaged with on the international stage during the 19th century.